Figures

Chapter 7

Fig. 7-1 (above, left). Fused silica telescope mirror blank donated to the Carnegie Institution's Las Campanas Observatory in Chile.
Fig. 7-2 (above, right). Cover of Science, 27 August, 1969, accompanying my review, "A genus of small mammals".

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Fig. 7-3. Running records of two chipmunks illustrating no inhibition of running in darkness. Animal #1 ran bidirectionally in darkness, whereas #3 ran strongly unidirectionally.

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Fig. 7-4. Running record of a least weasel on a day with simulated twilights Running was at greater speed with a tendency toward bidirectionality during twilights. Running in dim 'night' light was in lengthy bouts with long periods of rest.

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Fig. 7-5. Running record of a least weasel on a day with simulated twilights. The animal ran 96% toward the moon, changing direction every time the direction of the moon was alternated.

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Fig. 7-6. Running of a chipmunk at light levels above (upper) and below optimum (lower). Light levels alternated every 60 min (below) and every 30 min (above). Judging from running speeds (listed at right), the optimum level appears to be between 20-40 and 150-330 ft-c.

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Fig. 7-7. Running wheel (4-ft diameter) for medium sized mammals. A genet is seen in the enclosure.

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Fig. 7-8. Indoor running records with simulated twilights for six medium-sized mammals. 'Daytime' records are shown for the tayra, grison, and pigtailed macaque; 'nighttime records are shown for the bobcat, red fox, and ringtail. The records appear to be characteristic (compare with record in Fig. 7-9 for ringtail) for the different species.

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Fig. 7-9 (above, left). Running (trotting) record for the ringtail on a night when the light level was alternated every 30 min between 0.00003 ft-c (~ starlight) and darkness. The animal was consistently more active and ran fastest in darkness (30-min averages. listed at left).
Fig. 7-10 (above, right). Spider Monkey (Ateles belzebuth) and running wheel in monkey enclosure at San Diego zoo.

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Fig. 7-11 (above, upper). Two Arctic Foxes (Alopex lagopus) running in wheel in fox enclosure at San Diego zoo.
Fig. 7-12 (above, lower). Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) running in wheel in fossa enclosure at San Diego zoo.

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Fig. 7-13. Outdoor vegetative shielding for running-wheel enclosures on the roof of the Life Science Bldg., giving cover and a semi-natural setting.

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Fig. 7-14. 'Daytime' (20 ft-c) indoor running record for a roadrunner employing simulated dawns and dusks. 'Daytime' activity was usually strongly unidirectional but sometimes bidirectional. The insert shows running to the same scale when the wheel was propelled by the bird's jumping to and from the axle.

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Fig. 7-15. Plots of wheel-running parameters outdoors (left) and indoors (right) of the two roadrunners (see text). The birds are identified by solid versus open circles. One bird's (open circles) session lengths outdoors were much greater than the others, but its total running time indoors was much less.

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Fig. 7-16. Running record for the ground squirrel on the day of the eclipse, together with records of light level, temperature and relative humidity. The first part of the daytime light curve is to the left of center at the beginning of the record at the bottom. At roughly sunrise the recorder switches to the daylight range (linear scale), continuing until about sunset, when it returns to the low level range. The eclipse period is indicated at the mid left. Scales for temperature and relative humidity are at bottom left, for rpm, at bottom right. Time progresses from bottom to top (10.764 lux = 1 ft-c). Note the very brief stints of much higher speed running during the eclipse period, when the light-level changes are much akin to those occurring during twilights.

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Fig. 7-17. Influences of a partial solar eclipse on activity of an antelope ground squirrel. At the top, total daily active time from Sept. 4 to 20, with day of eclipse marked by open square at Sept. 11. Solid curves in three lower graphs are for running parameters (speed, session length and percent time active) on day of eclipse, with hours of eclipse delineated by vertical lines. Note that all running parameters peak during the eclipse and decline monotonically during the next few hours. The large solid circles are averages for 7 days before the eclipse, and the stars are for seven days after the eclipse (see text for details).

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Fig. 7-18. Influences of 8.5°, 10°, and 13.5°C 2-hr temperature cycles on running activity of an antelope ground squirrel during 3 days.. Since running was over 99% unidirectional only half of the records need be depicted. The temperature curve in the bottom record occupies a time when no running occurred. The time spent running, avg. session length, and speed all decreased with increasing temperature (details in text).

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Fig. 7-19. Two-foot running-wheel enclosure for medium sized mammals accommodating different sized nestboxes.

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Fig. 7-20. Active time (solid circles) and inactive time (dashed line), expressed as percentages, spent by 13 individuals of six species of carnivores at different volitionally selected light levels (abscissae; dark to 95 ft-c) (see text for full species names). For 10 of the 13 individuals the active time was greatest at the highest level available (details in text). Numbers beside the individual active time points give the percentages of days at which the active time peaked at the respective levels. The ringtail that showed no preference (bottom, second from left) had a light sense but no visual discrimination or acuity.

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Fig. 7-21. Emergence times (dots), sunset times (unlabeled dashed lines), and months of the study for ten carnivores. Sunrise times (labeled dashed lines) and times of retiring (upper solid circles) also are given for two of the genets (top graphs).

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Fig. 7-22. Outdoor records of a night each for a skunk (left) and a kinkajou (right). One-hr intervals are marked off, with 6 p.m. and 5 a.m. labeled. For the skunk, the temperature curve is at the far left. Light-level curves are shown beginning at lower left and continuing to upper left for two sensitivity scales; the end of dusk is indicated. Light-level and temperature curves are shown similarly for the kinkajou, but with times of raining also shown to the left (at about 4:40 p.m. and much of the 1:00 a.m. to 4:00 a.m. period) and wind-speed (m/sec scale at bottom) at the far right. The skunk ran highly directionally, almost non-stop for 9 hr., with gradually increasing speed. The kinkajou also ran highly directionally, but less sustainedly for 12 hr. including a 1-hr break.

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Fig. 7-23. Outdoor records of locomotor activity and weather variables (curves and hourly intervals marked off as in Fig. 22) during one day each for a coyote (left) and coati (right). On a sunny day, the coyote ran highly directionally in lengthy bouts with lengthy rest periods between. On a cloudy, windy day (gusts of 10 m/sec or more after 11 a.m., and on into the night), the coati ran very highly directionally and markedly sustainedly, virtually non-stop until about 7:30 p.m., well beyond nightfall, but with an almost 3-hr. morning rest period.

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Fig. 7-24. Four indoor and one outdoor (for a mongoose) records of locomotor activity of five carnivores. Times of simulated dusk and dawn, and 'day' and 'night' light levels are to the right of each indoor record. The records for the red fox and Arctic fox are particularly illustrative of bout-like activity and warm-ups. The outdoor record for the mongoose shows a sustained warm up lasting 4 h. The record for the long-tailed weasel illustrates both warm-ups and the difference between 'night' and 'day' locomotion that begins in early dawn (running speed is more variable during dawn and 'daylight') The record for the genet illustrates partially bidirectional, bout-like activity.

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Fig. 7-25. Locomotor activity for five carnivores on 3-or 4-hr cycles, all including roughly 1-h simulated twilights. The ringtail, coati, and genet were influenced markedly by the phases of the cycles, the kit fox to a somewhat lesser extent but did not run at all during the 'day' phase. The coyote was tested with three different programs of bright light. With 0.1 lux at 'night' versus 3,000 lux during the 'day,' 'night' activity exceeded 'day' activity by 250% (bottom left), but with 0.0001 lux at 'night' versus 200 lux during the 'day,' the situation was reversed, with 'day' exceeding 'night' activity by 290% (bottom right). Results for the red wolf (not shown) were similar to those for the coyote. Relative amounts of activity depended on the day and night light levels.

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Fig. 7-26. Locomotor records for eight carnivores during 30-min light level alternations between two or three levels illustrate the sensitivity of wheel-running tests for exploring visual adaptations. The #1 labels indicate lowest levels, #2 or #3 labels, higher or highest levels. The lowest level was dark and the highest level was 10 lux or greater for the coati, mongoose, and red wolf. Level #1 was also dark for the least weasel, and level #2 greater than 10 lux for the ringtail. All other levels were very dim or below 10 lux, except levels both #2 and #3 were 1,000 lux and 2,000 lux for the mongoose.

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